Background information provided for students
Throughout the activity, students will be directed to the supporting information given below, which provides some background, challenging ideas and options for further research. They are given fact round ups at the start of each section, and invited to scroll down for more information, ideas for research and discussion points.
Introduction
"I know people get all worked up about genetic alteration of animals for medicines and so on, but I'm not really interested in that. Just imagine this baby with fluorescent fur - it can be done! The process of living with it would be the real artwork. GA could be an amazing new vocabulary for artists, and we shouldn't just leave it in the hands of a few scientists and politicians."
What is GA?
GA means genetic alteration. If an organism is genetically altered it means that scientists have deliberately altered the normal sequence of its DNA in some way that cannot be achieved through natural or selective breeding - in other words, a gene has been added, deleted or modified. The terms genetically modified or genetically engineered are sometimes used instead. We are going to use the term GA here.
Genetically altered animals
GA animals are derived from normal animals. They come from embryos whose DNA (genetic code) has been altered by:
- adding extra copies of a normal gene or DNA sequence
- adding new DNA or a gene that would not normally be present
- removing normal DNA (knock-out) or altering normal DNA.
Once a GA animal has been produced, it is often possible to breed from that animal to generate a line of similar GA animals. All of the animals in the line will have similar genotypes and phenotypes because they are normally bred as inbred strains.
Animals that have been altered by adding a gene from a different species are often referred to as transgenic animals.
Why are GA animals produced?
Genetically altered animals have been produced for a variety of reasons.
- Cows, pigs, chickens and salmon have been altered to increase their growth rate or to improve their yield, in order to provide food for humans.
- Chickens, sheep, goats and rabbits have been altered to create animals that can produce biological substances in their eggs or milk, providing cheap, efficient methods for production of these substances for medicinal, research or commercial use.
- Fish have been altered to change colour in the presence of environmental pollutants, to provide a quick, easy indicator of pollution in water.
- Pigs have been altered to create animals with organs suitable for transplantation into humans, because there is a shortage of human organs for transplantation.
- Pigs have also been altered to produce less phosphorus in their manure, because this is a big environmental pollutant.
- Mice, rats and sheep have been altered to create an animal 'model' of human or animal illnesses, to allow us to learn more about the causes of illnesses and help develop treatments and cures.
- Rabbits, pigs and monkeys have been altered to create animals with cells that glow in the dark, for use in research or to display as 'living art'.
Something to think about
When learning about genetic alteration it is important to consider both the costs (harm to animals, possible negative effects on humans and other animals) and the perceived benefits to humans, other animals and the environment.
Now it's time to say what you think - remember you're voting on whether or not you agree with the case made by this first character: "Genetic alteration shouldn't be left to scientists - it could make great art."
Round 1
"It's just a bit of a joke, isn't it? I mean, it's okay if they don't suffer, or if they just use kinda like vermin, like rats and mice. But I'd probably draw the line at bigger animals, although we already do things like eat them, so what's the difference really, know what I mean?"
"I think it's totally weird, mucking about with animals like that. I mean, they're even making pigs more like humans so they can use their organs for transplants and things. I heard about this farm, where they're actually making pigs look like humans!"
Which GA animals, and how many, are produced for research and testing?
A licence (issued by the Home Office) is required to produce and use GA animals in procedures, and also to breed them. Every GA animal born is currently recorded as a procedure (as are any GA embryos and foetuses past the mid-point of gestation), even if no other regulated procedures are carried out on them.
According to the latest Home Office statistics, in 2009 genetically altered animals were used in nearly 2 million regulated procedures, representing 52 per cent of all animal procedures. All of this research causes animal suffering, some of which is substantial.
What do you think?
Mice are the main species genetically altered for the purpose of medical research. Why do you think they (and other mammalian species) have been selected as being most appropriate for the research, for example rather than invertebrate species?
What is xenotransplantation, and how can it help humans?
Xenotransplantation is the transplantation of living cells, tissues or organs from one species to another. The technology is being developed to try to overcome the shortage of human organs for transplantation and to provide potential therapies for medical conditions such as diabetes and Parkinson's disease.
The technology is still only at the research stage and many different species, including dogs, goats, pigs, and baboons, have been used to try to develop it further. All of this research causes animal suffering, some of which is substantial.
Find out more
What would be the point of making pigs that look like humans? Is it really true that scientists do this? Find out more about xenotransplantation from the UK Xenotransplantation Interim Regulatory Authority (UKXIRA) at this link.
Now it’s time to say what you think - remember you’re voting on whether or not you agree with the case made by the first character: “Genetic alteration of animals shouldn’t be left to scientists - it could make great art.”
Round 2
"Well, art is all about exploring new territories, and pushing back the boundaries. I know some people think animals that glow in the dark are cool, but I think that's a bit frivolous. Taken to its logical conclusion, artists could invent whole new life forms..."
"It just seems really arrogant, and dangerous. Leaving aside the big issue of how the animals might suffer, what would it do to us as a society if we started changing animals like that? I think animals are incredible as they are - just leave them alone."
Why make animals glow in the dark?
In 2006, Taiwanese scientists produced three pigs that glowed in the dark. They claimed these pigs would boost stem cell research, as well as helping with the study of human diseases. The pigs were created by inserting genes from jellyfish into 265 pig embryos, which were then implanted into eight sows. Four became pregnant and the three male glow-in-the-dark pigs were born. To find out more, go to this link.
How do animals suffer?
As the example above demonstrates, GA technology is wasteful of animal life. Large numbers of animals are used to provide sufficient eggs or embryos for genetic alteration, and to act as recipients and foster mothers for the manipulated embryos. These will be killed once the eggs/embryos are harvested, or once the offspring are weaned. In addition, current estimates suggest only three to five per cent of the offspring carry the desired alteration. All the rest are surplus to requirements and are killed.
What do you think?
Is there likely to be a scientific benefit to humans in producing glow-in-the-dark animals? If not, what other reasons do you think might be behind such developments? The main gene used to create glow-in-the-dark animals is the GFP (green fluorescent protein) gene from jellyfish, so most tend to be green. If more colours were possible, would this practice be more, or less, justifiable in your view?
Now it’s time to say what you think - remember you’re voting on whether or not you agree with the case made by the first character: “Genetic alteration of animals shouldn’t be left to scientists - it could make great art.”
Round 3
"I don't think you can just look at genetic alteration as an art thing. It's a scientific development. Without science it wouldn't be possible."
"The animals we genetically alter must suffer. How can we imagine they don't? I bet you can't even always tell beforehand what it'll be like for the animals that have been changed, or whether there's really any benefit for us or for the environment. And as for art...it just doesn't seem right. People should wake up to what's happening."
How does genetic alteration affect animals?
Introducing genetic change has the potential to result in the birth of animals whose welfare is compromised. Several different types of adverse effects are possible, including:
- physical abnormality that directly causes pain, or causes suffering due to mental stress from an inability, e.g. resulting from limb defects, to carry out natural behaviours, such as moving around freely
- physical abnormality that indirectly causes pain, suffering or distress, such as an abnormality leading to increased sensitivity to sound
- genetic effects that lead to disease or symptoms of disease, e.g. Huntington’s Disease
- abnormalities that compromise the animals, so they are more susceptible to disease
- mental abnormalities that may or may not manifest physically, for instance in performing repetitive behaviours, such as constantly spinning round.
Can GA be good for animals?
In some cases the aim of GA is to improve animal welfare, for example:
- to provide a better understanding of disease processes and mechanisms of disease resistance in livestock (e.g. cattle have been engineered to express an antibiotic in their milk, which increases their resistance to the udder infection mastitis)
- to remove a gene linked to a harmful disease - such as the Prp gene involved in the sheep disease scrapie.
What do you think?
Gene technology raises many ethical questions.
- Fundamental changes can be made to the genome of an animal that would not be possible, or would not readily arise in nature. The technique is therefore considered by some people to be 'unnatural'. Why do you think this is something people are concerned about?
- GA animals that are created to be predisposed to disease may be literally 'born to suffer'. What do you think about that?
- There may be unforeseen consequences of genetic alteration, e.g. for the welfare of the altered animals, or for human health or the environment. For example, GA salmon, engineered to grow faster and larger than normal salmon, may out-compete wild salmon if they escaped into the wild. Why would that matter?
- Although such applications are currently rare, GA animals may be created purely for a non-medical, commercial purpose (e.g. goats made to produce silk protein in their milk) or for convenience purposes (like non-allergenic pet cats). Where would you draw the line in the use of GA technology, and why?
Now it’s time to reach a verdict - remember you’re voting on whether or not you agree with the case made by the first character: “Genetic alteration of animals shouldn’t be left to scientists - it could make great art.”